No Rainbow No Roses free essay sample

Trane does not want her family see her die, but another reason that she also doesnt want to die alone thats why she wants the writer to stay there with her. What would you do if tomorrow is the end of world? Will you do a best thing for any one? Most of people will say they will eat, sleep, play, love or shop till the end of world comes, they think for themselves before they think for others. Nowadays, peoples lifestyle are very selfish, they can do everything just get what they want, but sometimes people forget that between the busy life still exist the thing is called humanity. I have read the article from internet that the son hit his mom because she did not listen to him and did what he wanted. Or the son chased his parents out of the house because of the brothers jealousy. We will write a custom essay sample on No Rainbow No Roses or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The relationship between parents and children are very close and nothing can change or replace it. But how can some people are so betrayal their parents. Everyone has one father and one mother, and no one in the earth can love us as our parents, we should respect our parents when they are still alive. In another article that I have read, some of people who live around us still have a charity heart, they help people without reason that people love to bring happiness to unlucky people. A lot of charities are organized around the world, that make everybody know in this world there are still many humane feeling, always ready to help them whenever they need. The article help me to realize that people come to people by many ways, but if I come to people by my heart, they will do the same as I do.

170210180096_Yeremia Theofilo Alexandro Budhi Essays - Free Essays

170210180096_Yeremia Theofilo Alexandro Budhi Essays - Free Essays BAHASA INDONESIA KESETARAAN GENDER DALAM BIDANG PENDIDIKAN 15392403344400 Disusun Oleh : Yeremia Theofilo Alexandro Budhi (1702101800 96 ) MAKALAH BAHASA INDONESIA TUGAS PERKULIAHAN BERSAMA UNIVERSITAS PADJAJARAN 2018 KATA PENGANTAR Dengan menyebut nama Tuhan Yang Maha Esa . Segala puji hanya milik Tuhan Yang Maha Esa semata, pertama-tama penulis panjatkan puji serta syukur kehadirat Nya sebagai yang Maha Kuasa atas segala yang ada di langit dan di bumi, serta Maha Penentu atas kelangsungan seluruh hidup hamba-hambanya. Karena atas segala rahmat dan hidayahnya, saya sampai saat ini masih diijinkan menikmati segala keindahan dan keindahan-Nya. Atas segala rahmatnya, saya dapat menyelesaikan tugas Makalah Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan berdasarkan Sustainable Development Goal's yang berjudul "Kesetaraan Gender dalam Bidang Pendidikan". Judul ini diambil dari tema Tujuan Pembangunan Berkelanjutan poin ke 4 yaitu "Pendidikan Berkualitas"dan poin ke 5 yaitu "Kesetaraan Gender". Dengan dibuatnya makalah ini, semoga para pembaca dapat memahami mengenai pembahasan yang penulis sajikan. Jatinangor , Desember 2018 Penyusun DAFTAR ISI HALAMAN SAMPUL...................................................................... . . . .....1 KATA PENGANTAR.................................................................... . ..........2 DAFTAR ISI.............................................................................................3 BAB 1 PENDAHULUAN.........................................................................4 Latar Belakang....................................................................................4 Rumusan Masalah...............................................................................4 Tujuan............................................................................................ . .....5 BAB 2 PEMBAHASAN.................................................................. . ........5 2.1 Persepktif Gender......................................... .......................................5 2. 2 Kesetaraan Gender.............................................................. ............. . ...6 2. 3 Peran Dalam Dunia Pendidikan... ................................................... . . ...6 BAB 3 PENUTUP.................................................... ...............................7 3.1 Kesimpulan.......................................................................................... 7 3.2 Saran....................................................................................... .............8 BAB 1 PENDAHULUAN Latar Belakang Perlakuan yang kurang adil terhadap perempuan masih sering kita temui di berbagai penjuru dunia. Perlakuan yang tidak seimbang ini acap kali terjadi diberbagai lapisan masyarakat. Alasannya sangat jelas dan belum berubah, yaitu karena budaya yang turun temurun dan mendarah daging dan sudah ada selama beribu tahun , dimana dunia terjebak dalam konsep bahwa wanita akan selalu berada dibawah kekuasaan pria. Bukan tanpa sebab jika wanita memerlukan pendidikan yang tinggi. Karena para wanita ini akan menjadi sekolah pertama bagi anak-anak mereka kelak. Wanita memiliki peran penting dalam kehidupan ini, yaitu dalam peningkatan kualitas generasi muda . T anpa wanita, pria pun tidak akan bisa berdiri dengan sukses. Sebab, dibalik pria sukses sudah pasti ada wanita hebat yang berdiri disampingnya. Dengan demikian, sudah seharusnya kita membuka mata dan pikiran kita untuk selalu memberikan ruang kebebasan agar para wanita bisa memperoleh hak nya untuk menempuh pendidikan setinggi mungkin. Kita juga harus merubah stigma yang beranggapan wanita tidak perlu bersekolah tinggi. Mengingat, seorang wanita adalah pendidik pertama dan utama. Sudah menjadi takdir bahwa seorang wanitalah yang akan melahirkan, membesarkan, dan mendidik seorang anak. Para wanita hebat ini juga m embantu tumbuh kembang generasi penerus bangsa yang secara alamiah memiliki keterikatan batin yang sangat kuat antara diri mereka sendiri dan anak mereka . Namun amat disayangkan, ruang gerak perempuan dibatasi oleh perspektif yang kurang adil dalam kedudukan mereka sebagaimana mestinya, termasuk dalam hal pendidikan. Masih ada segelintir wanita yang memegang teguh budaya dan pengukuhan bahwa mereka tidak butuh pendidikan yang tinggi, sebab pada akhirnya, mereka akan berujung bergulat di dapur. Rumusan Masalah Apa itu gender? Seperti apa kesetaraan gender itu? Bagaimana perannya dalam dunia pendidikan? Tujuan Dalam penulisan ini, penulis mengidentifikasi beberapa ketidakadilan terhadap kaum wanita, khususnya di bidang pendidikan. Juga agar pembaca dapat memahami dan terbuka pikirannya bahwasanya wanita sangat perlu pendidikan yang tinggi dengan tidak membeda-bedakan dan bersikukuh pada budaya yang sudah turun temurun tersebut . BAB 2 PEMBAHASAN 2.1 Perspektif Gender Gender secara umum dapat diartikan sebagai pembeda antara jenis kelamin pria dan wanita. Dari pemahaman tersebut muncullah paham mengenai perbedaan - perbedaan pria dan wanita. Pemahaman ini kebanyakan menganggap wanita merupakan bentuk manusia yang lebih lemah dan akan selalu berada dalam naungan seorang pria. Juga d imana , pria merupakan bentuk manusia yang lebih kuat yang memiliki kekuasaan diatas wanita , b aik secara sosial maupun budaya. Perspektif gender itu sendiri sangat mempunyai ketimpangan sosial didalamnya . Salah satu contohnya adalah dimana wanita dan pria selalu dibedakan dalam pencapaiannya di dunia pendidikan. Sebab masyarakat luas masih memandang bahwa wanita hidupnya hanyalah untuk mengabdi sebagai istri dan berdiam di rumah, mengerjakan pekerjaan rumah, dan mengurus anak. Sedang kan pria, mencari nafkah sebanyak-banyaknya agar dapat memenuhi kebutuhan keluarga dan terlihat di khalayak luas sebagai keluarga ideal. Amat disayangkan, karena hal tersebut kini kaum pria cukup semena-mena karena merasa sebagai " yang mencari uang ", bahkan sampai dalam beberapa kejadian memperlakukan istrinya layaknya pembantu. Wanita yang dipanggilnya sebagai

Summery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Summery - Essay Example Modern findings however argue that organisations are forced to adopt the culture of the wider society so as to be perceived as being legitimate (Dingwall & Strangleman, 2005). The early 1980s saw the idea of organizational culture popularized among managers. It was argued that successful companies created and possessed the right culture and managers were charged with initiating this. Dingwall and Strangleman (2005) further outline the role of culture in describing the cognition of members of an organisation to each other and the outsiders and explaining performance. Thus, the public sector was perceived to be inefficient due to the culture of indiscipline. These inefficiencies caused neo-liberal governments to front for privatisation and cultural change so as to equal them to their private counterparts. The interest in culture management in the private sector was largely driven by international competition. In the public sector, neo-liberal governments arriving in the UK and US and colonisation of international organisations pushed for adoption of culture management. Therefore, the modern cultural adaptation by the public sector fosters entrepreneurial go vernments which promote competition among service providers. They link culture to structure. Dingwall, R. & Strangleman, T. (2005). Organizational cultures in the public services. In E. Ferlie, L. E. Lynn & C. Pollitt (Eds.). The Oxford handbook of public management (pp. 468 - 490). Oxford, OX: Oxford University

Literature review of Analog Circuit Computer Aided Design Essay

Literature review of Analog Circuit Computer Aided Design - Essay Example The main purpose of this research of "Analog CAD" is to get the values of transistor sizes and components values like resistors and capacitances if the analog circuit specification is given. The optimization technique it adopts is geometric programming (Boyd, 2004). Till today analog circuit design automation is done for long length transistors or sub-micron transistors. Main objective of this research work is to automate circuit in deep sub-micron region. Before starting actual work on any topic it is necessary to go through literatures otherwise one may land up in a result which has already been found out by some other person.This section deals with the existing literatures related to analog circuit optimization. It outlines a summary of all the resource materials, authorial credentials, content credibility, source credibility, text credibility- Fluid integration of the source evaluation. A true literature review gives the proper sense of works that technology has achieved till dat e into that specified topic which helps one researcher to bring down his own research problem.Han Young et al. (1990) developed an analog silicon compilation system for CMOS op amps (OPASYN). The synthesis starts from a certain specification. From its database, program selects op amp topology that suits most with the given specification. Using parametric optimization the circuit then determines optimal value for its parameters. It also produces Design-Rule-Correct compact layout of the optimized op amp. Yang et al. (1995) proposed a Simulated Annealing (SA) algorithm for topology selection and sizing. In analog cells, topology choice and sizing simultaneously is efficient than normal two step mode synthesis. Basic problem with that approach is that super circuits must be worked out for each sort of analog cells. Chen et al. (2000) placed an iterative optimization idea for improving delay in digital circuit. Instead of only adjusting that gate sizes to reduce delay, they adjusted wire loads of the gates by repositioning them using geometric program. It gave better result in deep sub-micron design where the effect of interconnect delays dominates Mandal P and Visvanathan V (2001) devised an efficient technique for sizing of op amp by sequential convex optimization problem. This method then prototyped in MATLAB to apply into CMOS two stage op amp. Paper mostly focuses on long length transistor. In short channel case results did not come satisfactory due to second order effects. To overcome this, model was used that gave acceptable result.. Hershenson M et al. (2001) also worked on same topic and came out with fruitful result. There they have used 0.8 technology. Dawson et al. (2001), using geometric programming optimized the allocation of local feedback loops in a multistage amplifier. In a multistage amplifier local feedback loops effects its overall bandwidth, gain, rise time, noise and linearity. Using GP tool these problems had been solved taking into account wide variety of constraints. After that, Daems et al. (2001) came with simulation based automatic generation of signomial and posynomial models that can be used for analog design automation. These posynomial models were found to be more useful for geometric programming optimization. There, they tested the methodology with a CMOS OTA in 0.7 m technology. Hershenson M. (2002) presented a technique for the design of Analog- Digital Converter (ADC). In a predefined pipeline ADC topology she tried to get the component values and transistor sizes meeting the specification and keeping constraints like power, SNR, sampling frequency and area in convex form. Eackelaert et al. (2003) depicted a new technique to generate symbolic expressions for the performance characteristics. The technique determines the coefficients and the exponents of a posynomial template based

See Attachment for topic choices Research Paper

See Attachment for topic choices - Research Paper Example Similarly, inflation causes uncertainty about future and this situation will discourage savings and investments. In addition to this, inflation promotes speculation and hoarding since people expect further price rise in future. This worse economic condition causes shortage of goods as well. However, inflation can also contribute some benefits to the economy by enabling the central banks to vary nominal interest rates in order to mitigate the impacts of recession. In contrast, deflation indicates a decline in the general price level of goods and services. A reduction in the supply of money or credit often causes deflation; a decrease in personal, government, or investment spending may also lead to deflation. Generally, deflation occurs when annual inflation rate falls below zero percent (a negative inflation rate). Deflationary spiral is a danger that arises from deflation and this situation would make economic environment worse. This paper will critically evaluate the different aspec ts of zero inflation and moderate inflation. Inflation and its Impacts on Economies According to Feldstein (1998), the inflation always hurts standard of living of people since rising prices force them to pay more for the same goods and services. ... Similarly, if people expect inflation they are more likely to be extravagant as they envisage worse condition in near future. This economic condition turns to be one of the potential challenges as it may lead to further inflation. This adverse economic condition spirals out of control and hence it is known as spiraling inflation. To illustrate, when people get worried about the further price rise, they tend to plan their economic activities such as spending and buying for a short period. Although this short-term focused financial planning may add mobility to the economic performance of the nation, it involves some pitfalls also. For instance, the economic uncertainty regarding future would persuade the entrepreneurs and other business houses to postpone the launch of their new ventures, and that would ultimately impede the economic growth of the nation. Keynes has classified inflation into two; demand pull inflation and cost push inflation. Under demand push inflation, aggregate dema nd exceeds aggregate supply and it leads to adverse conditions such as deficit financing, agricultural backwardness, and labor inefficiency. In the case of cost push inflation, cost highly increases due to decrease in supply. This condition also affects the economy as it happens along with currency devaluation, profit deflation, and wage increases. Sometimes, the difference between demand and supply and resulting inflation may go beyond government control. In such situations, buyers would trim down their day to day expenses in order to vie with the increasing price level. At the same time, producers may cut down their output levels so as to retain minimum profit

Microcontroller Embedded Memory Technology Information Technology Essay

Microcontroller Embedded Memory Technology Information Technology Essay A  microcontroller  is a small computer on a single  integrated circuit  containing a processor core, memory, and programmable  input/output  peripherals. Program memory in the form of  NOR flash  or  OTP ROM  is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of  RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the  microprocessors  used inpersonal computers  or other general purpose applications. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/153056995_5ef8b01016_o.jpg/230px-153056995_5ef8b01016_o.jpg Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems. Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at  clock rate  frequencies as low as 4  kHz, for low power consumption (milliwatts or microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a  digital signal processor(DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption. Embedded design A microcontroller can be considered a self-contained system with a processor, memory and peripherals and can be used as an  embedded system.[1]  The majority of microcontrollers in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and peripherals for computer systems. These are called  embedded systems. While some embedded systems are very sophisticated, many have minimal requirements for memory and program length, with no operating system, and low software complexity. Typical input and output devices include switches,  relays,  solenoids,  LEDs, small or custom  LCD  displays, radio frequency devices, and sensors for data such as temperature, humidity, light level etc. Embedded systems usually have no keyboard, screen, disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a  personal computer, and may lack human interaction devices of any kind. Interrupts Microcontrollers must provide  real time  (predictable, though not necessarily fast) response to events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events occur, an  interruptsystem can signal the processor to suspend processing the current instruction sequence and to begin an  interrupt service routine  (ISR, or interrupt handler). The ISR will perform any processing required based on the source of the interrupt before returning to the original instruction sequence. Possible interrupt sources are device dependent, and often include events such as an internal timer overflow, completing an analog to digital conversion, a logic level change on an input such as from a button being pressed, and data received on a communication link. Where power consumption is important as in battery operated devices, interrupts may also wake a microcontroller from a low power sleep state where the processor is halted until required to do something by a peripheral event. Programs Microcontroller programs must fit in the available on-chip program memory, since it would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable, memory. Compilers and assemblers are used to convert high-level language and assembler language codes into a compact  machine code  for storage in the microcontrollers memory. Depending on the device, the program memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be programmed at the factory, or program memory may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only memory. Other microcontroller features Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens of general purpose input/output pins (GPIO). GPIO pins are software configurable to either an input or an output state. When GPIO pins are configured to an input state, they are often used to read sensors or external signals. Configured to the output state, GPIO pins can drive external devices such as LEDs or motors. Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the purpose of the  analog-to-digital converter  (ADC). Since processors are built to interpret and process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they are not able to do anything with the analog signals that may be sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize. A less common feature on some microcontrollers is a  digital-to-analog converter  (DAC) that allows the processor to output analog signals or voltage levels. In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of timers as well. One of the most common types of timers is the  Programmable Interval Timer  (PIT). A PIT may either count down from some value to zero, or up to the capacity of the count register, overflowing to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to the processor indicating that it has finished counting. This is useful for devices such as thermostats, which periodically test the temperature around them to see if they need to turn the air conditioner on, the heater on, etc. Time Processing Unit  (TPU) is a sophisticated timer. In addition to counting down, the TPU can detect input events, generate output events, and perform other useful operations. A dedicated  Pulse Width Modulation  (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to control  power converters,  resistive  loads,  motors, etc., without using lots of CPU resources in tight timerloops. Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter  (UART) block makes it possible to receive and transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU. Dedicated on-chip hardware also often includes capabilities to communicate with other devices (chips) in digital formats such as  I2C  and  Serial Peripheral Interface  (SPI). Higher integration In contrast to general-purpose CPUs, micro-controllers may not implement an external address or data bus as they integrate RAM and non-volatile memory on the same chip as the CPU. Using fewer pins, the chip can be placed in a much smaller, cheaper package. Integrating the memory and other peripherals on a single chip and testing them as a unit increases the cost of that chip, but often results in decreased net cost of the embedded system as a whole. Even if the cost of a CPU that has integrated peripherals is slightly more than the cost of a CPU and external peripherals, having fewer chips typically allows a smaller and cheaper circuit board, and reduces the labor required to assemble and test the circuit board. A micro-controller is a single  integrated circuit, commonly with the following features: central processing unit   ranging from small and simple 4-bit  processors to complex 32- or 64-bit processors discrete input and output bits, allowing control or detection of the logic state of an individual package pin serial  input/output  such as  serial ports  (UARTs) other  serial communications  interfaces  like  I ²C,  Serial Peripheral Interface  and  Controller Area Network  for system interconnect peripherals  such as  timers, event counters,  PWM generators, and  watchdog volatile memory (RAM) for data storage ROM,  EPROM,  EEPROM  or  Flash memory  for  program  and operating parameter storage clock generator   often an oscillator for a quartz timing crystal, resonator or  RC circuit many include analog-to-digital converters in-circuit programming and debugging support This integration drastically reduces the number of chips and the amount of wiring and  circuit board  space that would be needed to produce equivalent systems using separate chips. Furthermore, and on low pin count devices in particular, each pin may interface to several internal peripherals, with the pin function selected by software. This allows a part to be used in a wider variety of applications than if pins had dedicated functions. Micro-controllers have proved to be highly popular in  embedded systems  since their introduction in the 1970s. Some microcontrollers use a  Harvard architecture: separate memory buses for instructions and data, allowing accesses to take place concurrently. Where a Harvard architecture is used, instruction words for the processor may be a different bit size than the length of internal memory and registers; for example: 12-bit instructions used with 8-bit data registers. The decision of which peripheral to integrate is often difficult. The microcontroller vendors often trade operating frequencies and system design flexibility against time-to-market requirements from their customers and overall lower system cost. Manufacturers have to balance the need to minimize the chip size against additional functionality. Microcontroller architectures vary widely. Some designs include general-purpose microprocessor cores, with one or more ROM, RAM, or I/O functions integrated onto the package. Other designs are purpose built for control applications. A micro-controller instruction set usually has many instructions intended for bit-wise operations to make control programs more compact.[2]For example, a general purpose processor might require several instructions to test a bit in a register and branch if the bit is set, where a micro-controller could have a single instruction to provide that commonly-required function. Microcontrollers typically do not have a  math coprocessor, so  floating point  arithmetic is performed by software. Volumes About 55% of all  CPUs  sold in the world are  8-bit  microcontrollers and microprocessors. According to Semico, over four billion 8-bit microcontrollers were sold in 2006.[3] A typical home in a developed country is likely to have only four general-purpose microprocessors but around three dozen microcontrollers. A typical mid-range automobile has as many as 30 or more microcontrollers. They can also be found in many electrical devices such as washing machines, microwave ovens, and telephones. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/PIC18F8720.jpg/220px-PIC18F8720.jpg A  PIC  18F8720  microcontroller  in an 80-pin  TQFP  package. Manufacturers have often produced special versions of their microcontrollers in order to help the hardware and  software development  of the target system. Originally these included  EPROM  versions that have a window on the top of the device through which program memory can be erased byultraviolet  light, ready for reprogramming after a programming (burn) and test cycle. Since 1998, EPROM versions are rare and have been replaced by  EEPROM  and  flash, which are easier to use (can be erased electronically) and cheaper to manufacture. Other versions may be available where the  ROM  is accessed as an external device rather than as internal memory, however these are becoming increasingly rare due to the widespread availability of cheap microcontroller programmers. The use of field-programmable devices on a microcontroller may allow field update of the  firmware  or permit late factory revisions to products that have been assembled but not yet shipped. Programmable memory also reduces the lead time required for deployment of a new product. Where hundreds of thousands of identical devices are required, using parts programmed at the time of manufacture can be an economical option. These mask programmed parts have the program laid down in the same way as the logic of the chip, at the same time. Programming environments Microcontrollers were originally programmed only in  assembly language, but various  high-level programming languages  are now also in common use to target microcontrollers. These languages are either designed specially for the purpose, or versions of general purpose languages such as the  C programming language.  Compilers  for general purpose languages will typically have some restrictions as well as enhancements to better support the unique characteristics of microcontrollers. Some microcontrollers have environments to aid developing certain types of applications. Microcontroller vendors often make tools freely available to make it easier to adopt their hardware. Many microcontrollers are so quirky that they effectively require their own non-standard dialects of C, such as  SDCC for the 8051, which prevent using standard tools (such as code libraries or static analysis tools) even for code unrelated to hardware features. Interpreters are often used to hide such low level quirks. Interpreter  firmware is also available for some microcontrollers. For example,  BASIC  on the early microcontrollers  Intel  8052[4]; BASIC and  FORTH  on the  Zilog Z8[5]  as well as some modern devices. Typically these interpreters support  interactive programming. Simulators  are available for some microcontrollers, such as in Microchips  MPLAB  environment. These allow a developer to analyze what the behavior of the microcontroller and their program should be if they were using the actual part. A simulator will show the internal processor state and also that of the outputs, as well as allowing input signals to be generated. While on the one hand most simulators will be limited from being unable to simulate much other hardware in a system, they can exercise conditions that may otherwise be hard to reproduce at will in the physical implementation, and can be the quickest way to debug and analyze problems. Recent microcontrollers are often integrated with on-chip  debug  circuitry that when accessed by an  in-circuit emulator  via  JTAG, allow debugging of the firmware with a  debugger. Types of microcontrollers : Freescale 68HC11  (8-bit) Intel 8051 ARM  processors (from many vendors) using  ARM7  or Cortex-M3 cores are generally microcontrollers STMicroelectronics  STM8  (8-bit),  ST10  (16-bit) and  STM32  (32-bit) Atmel  AVR  (8-bit),  AVR32  (32-bit), and  AT91SAM  (32-bit) Freescale  ColdFire  (32-bit) and  S08  (8-bit) Hitachi H8,  Hitachi SuperH  (32-bit) Hyperstone  E1/E2 (32-bit, First full integration of  RISC  and  DSP  on one processor core [1996]  [1]) MIPS  (32-bit PIC32) NEC V850  (32-bit) PIC  (8-bit PIC16, PIC18, 16-bit dsPIC33 / PIC24) PowerPC  ISE PSoC (Programmable System-on-Chip) Rabbit 2000  (8-bit) Texas Instruments Microcontrollers  MSP430  (16-bit), C2000 (32-bit), and Stellaris (32-bit) Toshiba TLCS-870  (8-bit/16-bit) Zilog eZ8  (16-bit),  eZ80  (8-bit) and many others, some of which are used in very narrow range of applications or are more like applications processors than microcontrollers. The microcontroller market is extremely fragmented, with numerous vendors, technologies, and markets. Note that many vendors sell (or have sold) multiple architectures. Interrupt latency In contrast to general-purpose computers, microcontrollers used in embedded systems often seek to optimize  interrupt latency  over instruction throughput. Issues include both reducing the latency, and making it be more predictable (to support real-time control). When an electronic device causes an interrupt, the intermediate results (registers) have to be saved before the software responsible for handling the interrupt can run. They must also be restored after that software is finished. If there are more registers, this saving and restoring process takes more time, increasing the latency. Ways to reduce such context/restore latency include having relatively few registers in their central processing units (undesirable because it slows down most non-interrupt processing substantially), or at least having the hardware not save them all (this fails if the software then needs to compensate by saving the rest manually). Another technique involves spending silicon gates on shadow registers: one or more duplicate registers used only by the interrupt software, perhaps supporting a dedicated stack. Other factors affecting interrupt latency include: Cycles needed to complete current CPU activities. To minimize those costs, microcontrollers tend to have short pipelines (often three instructions or less), small write buffers, and ensure that longer instructions are continuable or restartable.  RISC  design principles ensure that most instructions take the same number of cycles, helping avoid the need for most such continuation/restart logic. The length of any  critical section  that needs to be interrupted. Entry to a critical section restricts concurrent data structure access. When a data structure must be accessed by an interrupt handler, the critical section must block that interrupt. Accordingly, interrupt latency is increased by however long that interrupt is blocked. When there are hard external constraints on system latency, developers often need tools to measure interrupt latencies and track down which critical sections cause slowdowns. One common technique just blocks all interrupts for the duration of the critical section. This is easy to implement, but sometimes critical sections get uncomfortably long. A more complex technique just blocks the interrupts that may trigger access to that data structure. This often based on interrupt priorities, which tend to not correspond well to the relevant system data structures. Accordingly, this technique is used mostly in very constrained environments. Processors may have hardware support for some critical sections. Examples include supporting atomic access to bits or bytes within a word, or other atomic access primitives like theLDREX/STREX  exclusive access primitives introduced in the  ARMv6  architecture. Interrupt nesting. Some microcontrollers allow higher priority interrupts to interrupt lower priority ones. This allows software to manage latency by giving time-critical interrupts higher priority (and thus lower and more predictable latency) than less-critical ones. Trigger rate. When interrupts occur back-to-back, microcontrollers may avoid an extra context save/restore cycle by a form of  tail call  optimization. Lower end microcontrollers tend to support fewer interrupt latency controls than higher end ones. History The first single-chip microprocessor was the 4-bit  Intel 4004  released in 1971. With the  Intel 8008  and more capable microprocessors available over the next several years. These however all required external chip(s) to implement a working system, raising total system cost, and making it impossible to economically computerize appliances. The first computer system on a chip optimized for control applications was the  Intel 8048  released in 1975,[citation   with both  RAM  and  ROM  on the same chip. This chip would find its way into over one billion PC keyboards, and other numerous applications. At this time Intels President, Luke J. Valenter, stated that the (Microcontroller) was one of the most successful in the companies history, and expanded the divisions budget over 25%. Most microcontrollers at this time had two variants. One had an erasable  EPROM  program memory, which was significantly more expensive than the  PROM  variant which was only programmable once. In 1993, the introduction of  EEPROM  memory allowed microcontrollers (beginning with the Microchip  PIC16x84)  [2][citation needed]) to be electrically erased quickly without an expensive package as required for  EPROM, allowing both rapid prototyping, and  In System Programming. The same year, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using  Flash memory.[6] Other companies rapidly followed suit, with both memory types. Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit microcontrollers being available for under $0.25 in quantity (thousands) in 2009,[citation needed]  and some 32-bit microcontrollers around $1 for similar quantities. Nowadays microcontrollers are low cost and readily available for hobbyists, with large online communities around certain processors. In the future,  MRAM  could potentially be used in microcontrollers as it has infinite endurance and its incremental semiconductor wafer process cost is relatively low. Microcontroller embedded memory technology Since the emergence of microcontrollers, many different memory technologies have been used. Almost all microcontrollers have at least two different kinds of memory, a non-volatile memory for storing firmware and a read-write memory for temporary data. Data From the earliest microcontrollers to today, six-transistor SRAM is almost always used as the read/write working memory, with a few more transistors per bit used in the  register file.  MRAMcould potentially replace it as it is 4-10 times denser which would make it more cost effective. In addition to the SRAM, some microcontrollers also have internal EEPROM for data storage; and even ones that do not have any (or not enough) are often connected to external serial EEPROM chip (such as the  BASIC Stamp) or external serial flash memory chip. A few recent microcontrollers beginning in 2003 have self-programmable flash memory[6]. Firmware The earliest microcontrollers used hard-wired or mask ROM to store firmware. Later microcontrollers (such as the early versions of the  Freescale 68HC11  and early  PIC microcontrollers) had quartz windows that allowed ultraviolet light in to erase the  EPROM. The Microchip  PIC16C84, introduced in 1993,[7]  was the first microcontroller to use  EEPROM  to store firmware. Also in 1993, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using  NOR Flash memory  to store firmware.[6] PSoC  microcontrollers, introduced in 2002, store firmware in  SONOS  flash memory. MRAM  could potentially be used to store firmware.

Martin Luther :: essays research papers

The Renaissance marked new interests in the discovery of the natural world through art and the sciences. In art, the discovery of perspective brought a revolutionary realism to painting, architecture, and exploration. This led to the Europeans’ discoveries of new lands, such as Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Because of the Renaissance’s deviance from the thoughts of the medieval age, an opportunistic view of humanity developed. Many began believing that man was capable of doing anything, as long as they had the will.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Society developed a man-centered thought, somewhat departing from the God centered thought of the medieval period. The educated leader, soldier, and artist were revered, whereas the bishop, priest, and monk took a back seat. The artists and humanists of the Renaissance era would help establish this age as one of individualism and creativity Renaissance thinkers appealed to a combination of Christianity and Humanism, by referring to Genesis 1:26 (â€Å"And God said, ‘Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness’†) and Genesis 1:28 (â€Å"Have dominion over [earth]’†). Because man is made in God’s likeness and has dominion of Earth, Humanists believed they were divine creations of God living on Earth. The Renaissance helped secularize Europe. Man was now the creator of his own destiny.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The exploration during this era brought more centralized monarchies. The flood of silver and gold made many nations money hungry, as they raced to discover more lands. Also, this era could be considered a scientific one, as Copernicus published his De Revolutionibus, which culminated into the growth of universities. Also, the printing press had created the ability to produce books cheaply and in more quantities. And this was important, as the Renaissance created a literate public eager for whatever was freshly published.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Renaissance occurred for many reasons. One main reason could be with the dissatisfaction with the Church. There was a shift from group salvation to a more personalized view on life, due to the Humanistic movement. People wanted an individualized way of salvation. The sacraments became devoid of meaning. The papacy lost much of its power, due to the secularization of many cities. People were able to congregate among themselves and discuss ideas and thoughts. Many people noticed the wealth of the papacy. The poor resented this wealth, while the rich citizens envied it. At the same time, the popes were still selling indulgences and high offices. The clergy had become lax and corrupt.